Essay on The History of Education in India
Both Hindu and Muslim had their educational institutions when East
India Company acquired territories in various parts of India. The
Maulvis ought to the Muslims in Mosques and the Pandits taught Sanskrit
to the Hindus in the pathsalas.
However Warren Hastings established the Calcutta Madrasah “to qualify
the sons of Mohammedan gentlemen for responsible and lucrative officer
in the State”. The subjects taught were theology, logic, rhetoric,
grammar, law, natural philosophy, astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.
A few years later, John Owen, chaplain to the Bengal presidency,
requested the Government to establish schools for the purpose of
teaching English “to the natives of these provinces”. Nobody cared for
his request.
However, after a few years, another educational institution was set
up at Banaras “for the preservation and cultivation of the Laws,
Literature and Religion of the nation, to accomplish the same purpose
for the Hindus as the Madrasah of the Mohammedan and specially supply
qualified Hindu Assistants to European Judges”.
Wilberforce carried a resolution emphasising the adoption of such
steps as would lead to the advancement in useful knowledge of the people
of India in 1792-93. He suggested the sending of school masters and
missionaries to India.
The move of Wilberforce was opposed and it was maintained that the
Hindus had “as good a system of faith and morals as must people”. It was
pointed out that it would be madness to give them any kind of learning
other than what they possessed.
Some years later, Charles Grant, one of the Directors of the Company,
submitted a memorandum in which be lamented the low moral condition of
the people of India. He asked the company to improve their condition by
imparting to them knowledge of the English language which was to serve
as “a key which will open to them a world of new ideas”.
As the Muslim rulers had taught Persians to the Indians, in the same
way the Englishmen should teach English to the people of India. To quote
him, “It would be extremely easy for Government, to establish, at
moderate expenses, in various parts of provinces, places of gratuitous
instruction in reading and writing English, multitudes, especially of
the young, would flock to them, and the easy books used in teaching
might at the same time Corvey obvious truths on different subjects.
The Hindus would, in time, become teachers of English themselves, and
the employment of our language in public business, for which every
political reason remains in full force, would, in the course of another
generation. There is nothing wanting to the success of this plan, but
the hearty patronage of Government.
In 1811, Lord Minto regretted the neglect of literature and science
in India and suggested improvements in existing colleges in addition to
the establishment of new ones.
A clause was inserted in the Charter Act of 1813 stipulating that “a
sum of not less than one lakh of rupees in each year shall be set apart
and applied to the revival and improvement of literature and for the
introduction and promotion of knowledge of the sciences among the
inhabitants of the British territories in India”.
For founding an institution where the Hindus were to receive
instructions in European languages. Sciences, Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded
an association. The Hindu College was founded in 1817.
In 1818, the Bishop of Calcutta opened an institution which was to
serve the double purpose of training young Christians as preachers and
of imparting knowledge of the English language to Hindus and Muslims.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy opposed the establishment of a Sanskrit College at
Calcutta.
However, nobody bothered of a Sanskrit College at Calcutta. However,
nobody bothered about this protest. The court of Directors of the
Company was happy at the prospect of having qualified Indians to help
them in the administration.
To quote them, “As the means of bringing about this most desirable
object, we rely chiefly on their becoming through a familiarity with the
European literature and science, imbued with the ideas and feelings of
civilized Europe-on the ample cultivation of their understanding and
specifically on their instruction in the principles of moral and general
jurisprudence”.
Elphinstone in 1823, in a communication to the commissioners for
Indian Affairs, he wrote to impart higher degree of education to upper
class. Another important objective was to prepare natives for public
employment.
He proposed the establishment of a school at Bombay where English
might be taught “classically” and where instruction might also be given
in that language age on history, geography and Science.
In 1833, he set a similar School at Poona. In 1834 was started the
Elphinstone College at Bombay. It was expected to train “a class of
persons qualified by their intelligence and morality for high employment
in the Civil Administration of India”.
There started a controversy as to whether instructions should be
given through English or through Arabic or Persian. The Anglicists
maintained that all instruction should be given through the oriental
languages.
To settle the controversy, the Government appointed a committee.
Among the orientalists were many distinguished officers of the
Government and their view prevailed for sometime. When Lord Macaulay was
appointed the chairman of the committee in 1835, the parties were so
evenly balanced that things had come to a deadlock.
Lord Macaulay wrote a minute which turned the scales against the
Orient lists. He discussed the Charter Act of 1813 which provided a sum
of money for the revival and promotion of literature and for the
introduction of the knowledge of Sciences among the inhabitants of
India.
His argument was that English was the language spoken by the ruling
class. It was likely to become the language of commerce “throughout the
seas of East.” He came to the conclusion that the Government was free to
employ its funds on teaching what was better worth knowing than
Sanskrit or Arabic.
Lord Macaulay had expressed similar views in the House of Commons
before he come to India. To quote him, “Are we to keep people of India
ignorant in order that we may keep the them submissive? Or do we think
that we can give knowledge without awakening ambition?”
Or do we mean to awaken ambition and provide it with no legitimate
Vent? It may be that the public mind of India may expand under our
system until it has outgrown that system that by good Government we may
educate our subjects into a capacity for better Government that having
become instructed in European knowledge, they may, in some future age,
demand.
European institutions. Whether such a day will ever come I know not.
Whenever it comes it will be the proudest day in English history… The
scepte may pass away from us. Victory may be inconstant to our arms, but
there are triumphs which are followed by no reverse. There is no empire
exempt from all natural causes of decay.
There triumphs are the pacific triumphs of reason over barbarism,
”the empire is the imperishable empire of our arts and our morals, our
literature and our laws”. Again, “The question before us is simply
whether, when it is in our power to teach this language-English-we shall
teach languages in which by universal confession, there are no books on
any subjects which deserve to be compared to our own: whether, when we
can teach European science, we shall teach system which, by universal
confession, wherever they differ from those of Europe, differ for the
worse: and whether, when we patronise sound philosophy and true history,
we shall countenance, at the Public expense, medical doctrines which
would disgrace an English farrier astronomy which would move straighter
in the girls at an English boarding school, history abounding with kings
thirty feet high and regains thirty thousand years long, and geography
made up seas of treacle and seas of butter.
Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General, approved of the minute
of Lord Macaulay. A resolution was passed on 7th March 1835 and the
following points were emphasised in that resolution:
1. That “the great object of the British Government ought to be the
promotion of European literature and science amongst the natives of
India and that all found appropriated for the purposes of education
would be best employed on English education alonge.
2. “That while the colleges of oriental learning were not to be
abolished, the practise of supporting their students during their period
of education was to be discontinued.
3. “The Government funds were not to be spent on the printing of oriental works.
4. “That all the funds at the disposal of the Government knowledge of English literature and Science.”
It was a systematic effort on the part of the British Government to
educate the Upper classes, of India through the English language.
Macaulay put implicit faith on downward filtration theory. He believed
that the English educated persons would act as a class of interpreterous
and in turn enrich vernacular languages and literatures.
In the Northwest provinces Mr. James Thompson, Lieutenant-Governor
during 1843-53 made an effort to develop elaborate system of village
education. The department of Education was organised for the development
of indigenous schools. The main objective of Thompsonean plan to train
people for employment in the newly set up Revenue and P.W.D of the
province.
Wood’s Despatch of 1854:
But the most important landmark in the development of education in
India was the Wood’s Despatch of 1857. In 1854 Sir Charles Wood, the
President of the Board of Control-drafted a Despatch on the future
scheme of education.
This despatch is considered as the Magna Carta of English education
in India. In this despatch he emphasised that India was “a race of
people slow to change, bound up by religious prejudices and antiquated
customs.” There are infact many I had almost said all the obstacles to
rapid progress.
The chief recommendations of Wood’s Despatch were as follows:
1. The aim of the educational system and policy of the British should
be diffusion of the Arts, Science and Philosophy of Europe so that
trustworthy men would be produced who could hold offices under the
company.
2. Both English and English languages were to be used for the
diffusion of European knowledge, and English as the medium of education
should not be insisted upon at all stages. It should be used only when
sufficient knowledge of it had been gained by the people.
3. The despatch favoured the abandonment of Macaulay’s filtration
Theory, which held that education should be imparted to upper classes
only and it would automatically filter down to the masses. Instead of
recommended that indigenous school be made a foundation of the system.
4. It favoured the introduction of the system of grants-in-aid to
encourage the private enterprises in the field of education. However,
these grants were to be made available only to those institutions which
employed qualified teachers and maintained proper standards of teaching.
In making these grants the principle of religious neutrality was also
to be observed.
5. The despatch laid great emphasis on vocational instructions and
emphasised the need of establishing technical instructions for training
students in law, medicine, agriculture, methods of teaching in schools
etc.
6. Special facilities and encouragement should be provided to female education.
7. It favoured the establishment of Universities in India on the
pattern of the London University. Each University was to have a
chancellor, a vice-chancellor and a senate, in addition to professions
for various branches of learning such as Law. These universities were to
be merely examining bodies.
Initially such universities were set up at Calcutta and Bombay, but
an additional university would be established at Madras. At other
places, where there were sufficient number of students for degree
classes such universities would be established. In pursuance of this
provision universities were set up at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in
1887 respectively.
8. The despatch recommended the establishment of a Separate
Department of Public Instructions in every province under the
Director-General of Education. The Director-General was to be assisted
by inspecting officers, who were to make periodical reports of the
educational work in their province. These officers were designated as
Director and were in charge of one of the five provinces each.
Wood’s scheme of education has been criticised on the ground that it
was a slavish imitation of the English models and failed to provide any
solid scheme for the administration of schools etc. The appointment of
administrators as Directors of public instructions has been severely
criticised by Prof. Dodwell. He says, the men in- charge of the
department were primarily administrators and consequently education
tended to become a matter of routine administration.
The Hunter Commission 182-83:
The British so far had placed emphasis on the College and University
education. The secretary of state for India, by a regulation in 1859,
had made provision of grants-in-aid by the Government to colleges and
universities alone.
Therefore, the Primary and High school education remained neglected.
In 1870, the responsibility of education was transferred to provinces
which had limited economic resources. That also handicapped the Primary
and High School education.
Therefore, Lord Ripon felt the necessity of inquiring into the
working of Primary and High School education and appointed an Education
Commission under Mr. W.W. Hunter in 1882 to review the progress of
education in these fields since Woods dispatch of 1854. The commission
submitted its report in 1883. Some of its primary recommendations were
as follows:
1. Primary education should be given priority. The government need
not wait for voluntary help in this field. It should hand over the
management of primary education to District and Municipal Boards which
were to be provided one-third of its expenditure on it by the Government
as grants-in-aid.
2. Two types of High Schools should be established-the one for
providing literary education leading upto entrance examination of the
University and the other preparing students for vocational education.
3. The Government as for as could be possible, should withdraw itself
from the school and college education and every effort should be made
to encourage private enterprise in these fields by a system of liberal
grants-in-aid.
4. Female education which was most inadequate outside the presidency towns should be emphasized.
The Government accepted most of the recommendations of the commission
and education developed with a marked speed after it. But more than the
Government a number of Indian philanthropic and religious associations
participated in its growth.
It resulted not only in the development of western education but also
in oriental studies. So teaching-cum-examining Universities were also
established in the coming years, i.e., the Punjab University in 1882 and
the Allahabad University in 1887. But the Primary education still
remained neglected.
Besides, the female education also remained negligible. According to
public census in 1901, only fifteen per cent among children went to the
Primary schools and only seven femalies among one thousand could read
and write.
The Indian Universities Act, 1904:
In September 1901 Curzon summoned the highest educational officers of
the Government. Throughout India and representatives of Universities at
a round table conference at Simla.
The conference opened with a speech by the viceroy in which he
surveyed the whole field of education in India. “We have not here he
said, “to devise a brand new plan of educational reforms which is to
spring fully armed from the head of the Home department and to be
imposed Nolens Volens upon the Indian public.”
Later developments were to prove the hypocrisy behind this assertion.
The conference adopted 150 resolutions which touched almost every
conceivable branch of education.
This was followed by the appointment of a commission under the
presidency of Sir Thomas Raleigh on 27 January 1902 to enquire into the
condition and prospects of Universities in India and to recommend
proposals for improving their constitution and working.
Evidently, the commission was precluded from reporting on primary or
secondary education as result of the report of the recommendations of
the commission the Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904. The main
changes proposed were as-
1. The Universities were desired to make provision for promotion of
study and research, to appoint University professors and lecturers, set
up University laboratories and libraries and undertake direct
instruction of students.
2. The act lay down that the number of fellows of a University shall
not be less than fifty or more than a hundred a fellow should normally
hold office for a period of six years instead of for life.
3. Most of the fellows of a University were to be nominated by the
Government. The elective element of Universities of Calcutta, Madras and
Bombay was to be twenty each and in case of other Universities fifteen
only.
4. The Government control over the Universities was further increased
by vesting the Government with powers to veto the regulations passed by
the senate of a University. The Government could also make conditions
or alterations in the regulations formed by the Senate and even frame
regulating itself over and above the head of the Senate.
5. The Act increased University control over private colleges by
laying down stricter conditions of affiliation and periodical inspection
by the syndicate. The private colleges were required to keep a proper
standard of efficiency. The Government approval was necessary for grant
of affiliation or dis-affiliation of colleges.
6. The Governor-General in council was empowered to define the
territorial limits of a University or decide the affiliation of colleges
to Universities.
The Universities Act of 1904 met with severe condemnation at the
hands of Indian leaders. According to Chirol “As was to be expected
under a viceroy who was a great autocrat with an even whelming faith in
the efficiency of the Government machinery, the chief purpose of the Act
of 1904 was to tighten the hold of the Government on the University,
and in the first place on their senates, which were still retained as
the ruling bodies. It has alleged that Curzon sought to reduce the
Universities to the position of departments of states and sabotage
development of private enterprise in the field of education.
According to Frozer “The greatest controversy of Lord Curzon”,
viceroyalty which produced bitterness among the leaders of Indian
opinion and which was responsible for making the viceroy the most
unpopular with the educated calls in India was the Act of 1904. The
Sadler Commission of 1917 also observed that the Act of 1904 made “the
Indian Universities among the most completely governmental Universities
in the world.”
The Resolution of 21 February 1913:
The Indian national leaders were pressing the Government of India to
assume the responsibility of providing compulsory primary education in
India. The Government cleared its policy by a resolution on 21 February
1913. It did not assume the responsibility of compulsory primary
education.
Instead, it accepted its adherence to a policy of the removal of
illiteracy in India. It urged the Provinces Governments to take early
measures towards this direction. It also emphasized the need to
encourage private voluntary efforts in this direction. It emphasized on
improvement of the High school education and stressed the need of taking
the responsibility of teaching by the Universities.
The Sadler University Commission 1917-19:
In 1917 the Government of India appointed a commission to study and
report on the problems of Calcutta University. Dr. M.E. Sadler,
Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds, was appointed its chairman.
The commission included two Indian members, namely Sir Asutosh
Mukherji and Dr. Zia-ud-din Ahmad, while the Hunter commission had
reported on problems of Secondary education and the University
Commission of 1902 mainly on the different aspects of University
education, the Sadler Commission reviewed the entire field from school
education to university education.
The Sadler commission held the view that the improvement of Secondary
education was a necessary condition for the improvement of university
education.
The Commission reported that an effective synthesis between college
and university was still undiscovered when the reform of 1904 had been
worked out to conclusion and the foundation of a sound university
organisation had not been laid down.
Further, it reported that “the problems of high school training and
organisation were unresolved. Although the commission reported on the
conditions of Calcutta University, its recommendations and remarks were
more or less applicable to other Indian Universities also. The following
were the main recommendations:
1. A twelve-year school course was recommended. After passing the
Intermediate Examination. Rather than the matriculation, the students
were to enter a University. The Government was urged to create new type
of institutions called intermediate Colleges.
These colleges could either be run as independent institutions or
might be attached to selected high schools. For the administration and
control of Secondary Education, the Commission recommended the setting
up of a Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education.
The idea behind these recommendations was on the one hand, to prepare
students for the universities, and to relieves the latter of a large
number of students quite below any university standard and, on the other
hand, to offer a sound collegiate education to students who did not
propose, and should not be encouraged, to proceed to universities.
2. The duration of the degree course after the Intermediate stage
should be limited to three years. For the needs of abler students
provision was to be made for Honours courses as distinct from the pass
courses.
3. The commission recommended less rigidity in framing the regulations of universities.
4. The old type of Indian university, with its large number of
affiliated and widely scattered colleges should be replaced by
centralized unitary-residential-teaching autonomous bodies.
A unitary teaching university was recommended for Dacca to lessen the
rush of numbers at the colleges of Calcutta University. Further,
Colleges in the mofussil should be so developed as to make it possible
encourage the growth of new university centres few concentration of
resources for higher education at a few points.
5. It stressed the need for extension of facilities for female
education and recommended the establishment of a special Board of Women
Education in the Calcutta University.
6. The necessity of providing substantial facilities for training of
teachers was emphasised and desirability of setting up the departments
of education at the Universities of Calcutta and Dacca.
7. The university was desired to provide courses in applied science
and technology and also to recognise their systematic and practical
study by award of degrees and diplomas. The universities were also to
provide facilities for training of personnel for professional and
vocational colleges.
Seven new universities came into existence during 1916-21, namely
Mysore, Patna, Banaras, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow and Osmania. In 1920 the
Government of India recommended the Sadler report to provincial
governments.
The Hartog Committee, 1929:
By the Act of 1919, education was transferred to the provinces and
the central government discontinued its grant for the purpose of
education. The provincial Government could do nothing much concerning
the education, yet the number of schools and colleges continued
multiplying because of private initiative. It led to deterioration of
educational standards.
Therefore, a committee headed by Sir Philip Hartog was appointed in
1929 by Indian statutory commission to report on the progress of
education achieved by them. The main findings of this committee were as
follows:
1. Primary education needed more attention though it was not necessary to make it compulsory.
2. Only deserving students should be allowed to go in for high school
and intermediate education. Average students should be diverted to
vocational courses just after the middle stage, i.e. after VIII class.
3. The Universities should improve their standards of education and
for that it was necessary that admissions to the university should be
restricted.
By the Act of 1935, provincial autonomy was introduced in the
provinces and popular ministries started functioning in 1937. The
Congress formed its Government in seven provinces. Mahatma Gandhi
proposed a scheme of education which is popularly known as Wardha Scheme
of Basic education The Zakir Hussain Committee worked out the details
of this scheme and suggested a seven years course of education which
involved manual productive work as well.
But the scheme could not be introduced because the ministries resigned in 1939 due to the outbreak of the Second World War.
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education:
The Congress Ministries formed in seven provinces under the
Government of india Act 1935 also devoted attention to the improvement
of educational system. In 1937 Mahatma Gandhi proposed a scheme of Basic
education. Popularly known as Wardha Scheme or Scheme of Basic
education.
This scheme was evolved as a result of deliberations of various
educationalists that assembled at Wardha under the Chairmanship of
Mahatma Gandhi. The scheme laid emphasis on manual productive work and
was to be financially self-sufficient. In the main the Wardha scheme of
Basic Education had four basic features:
i. Education was to be free for all the children between the age of 7 and 14 years.
ii. Education was to be imparted through the mother-tongue of the child.
iii. It was to centre round certain basic crafts selected with due regard to the surrounding.
iv. It was to be self-sufficient and not to course any financial strain on the government.
Sergeant Plan of Education:
In 1944 the Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a scheme. As
Sir John Sergeant was the educational advisor of the Government of India
at that time, it is known as the Sergeant plan. It envisaged the
establishment of junior and senior basic schools and compulsory
education for children between six to eleven years of age.
Over Senior basic schools were High schools which were to be two
categories-academic and technical or vocational which were to provide
education for six years. The plan suggested the abolition of
Intermediate schools.
But it recommended that one year was to be added to school education
and one year to the degree courses in the universities. The plan
suggested reconstruction of education in the next forty years. The
period, however, was reduced to sixteen years by the Kher committee.
Radhakrishnan Commission (1949):
After the independence of India, the Government of India appointed in
1948 a University commission under the chairmanship of Sri S.
Radhakrishnan. The terms of reference of the commission were to consider
and make recommendations on the following subjects:
1. The aims and objects of university education and research in India.
2. The changes considered necessary and desirable in the
constitution, control, functions and jurisdiction of universities in
India and their relations with the Government of India and the
Provincial Governments.
3. The finance of universities.
4. The maintenance of the highest standard of teaching and examinations in the universities and colleges under their control.
5. The courses of studies in the university and their duration.
6. The standards of admission to university courses of study with
reference to the desirability of an independent university entrance
examination and the avoidance of unfair discrimination which militate
against the fundamental right contained in Article 23 (2).
7. The medium of instruction in the universities.
8. The provision for advanced study in Indian culture, history, literature, languages, philosophy and finance.
9. The need for more universities on a regional or other basis.
10. The organisation of advanced research in all branches of
knowledge in the universities and institutes of higher research in a
well-co-ordinated fashion avoiding waste of efforts and resources.
11. Religious instruction in the universities.
12. The special problems of Delhi University, Aligarh University and Banaras Hindu University.
13. The qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privileges
and functions of teachers and the encouragement of original research by
teachers.
14. The discipline of students, hotels and the organisation of
tutorial work and any other matter which is germane and essential to a
complete and comprehensive enquiry into all aspects of university
education and advanced research in India.
After touring the whole of the country, interviewing people and
receiving and considering the memoranda from various quarters the
commission made the following recommendations in 1949:
The commission recommended the establishment of rural universities
with Santiniketan and Jamia Millia as their model. The Report criticised
the allocation of small funds for education. They were not to be more
than five per cent of the total revenue.
The commission stressed the necessity of increasing considerably the
grants for scholarship and stipends so that the poor might not suffer.
The colleges were not to be allowed to admit more than one thousand
students.
Where the mother-tongue was not the same as the federal language, the
federal language was to be the medium of instruction. If the
mother-tongue and the federal language were identical, the students were
required taking any other Indian classical or modern language.
There should be no attempt at hasty replacement of English as a
medium of instruction for academic standards. The commission did not
prescribe any time limit. There were to be no denominational or
sectarian religious considerations.
As regards co-education it would be adopted in the secondary stage
and then again in the college stage. The commission laid considerable
stress on improving the standards of the teaching profession.
There were to be four classes of teachers, viz., professors, readers,
lecturers and instructors, promotion from one category to another was
to be solely on the basis of merit.
University Grants Commission:
In 1956, the Indian parliament passed the University Grants
Commission Act. That Act provides for the appointment of University
Grants Commission by the Central Government. The nine members of the
commission are appointed by the Central Government.
Every member holds office for a period of six years. The chairman of
the commission is appointed by the Central Government and his job is a
whole-time job carrying a salary. The commission meets at different
times at different places.
